Introduction to Incoterms 2000
While the terms of sale in international business often sound similar to those commonly used in domestic contracts, they often have different meanings.
Confusion over these terms can result in a lost sale or a financial loss on a sale.
Thus, it is essential that you understand what terms you are agreeing to before you finalize a contract.

EXW - Ex Works (named place)
The seller makes the goods available at his premises. The buyer is responsible for all charges. This term may be the easiest to administer, however may not be in the seller's best interests. There is no control over the final destination of the goods. It may be possible for the seller to negotiate better freight rates than the buyer. A vehicle arriving to take delivery of the seller's goods under EXW may not be suitable for carriage.

FCA - Free Carrier (named place)
The seller hands over the goods, cleared for export, into the custody of the first carrier (named by the buyer) at the named place. This term is suitable for all modes of transport, including carriage by air, rail, road, and containerised / multi-modal transport.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship (named loading port)
The seller must place the goods alongside the ship at the named port. The seller must clear the goods for export; this changed in the 2000 version of the Incoterms. Suitable for maritime transport only.

FOB - Free On Board (named loading port)
The classic maritime trade term.
The seller must load the goods on board the ship nominated by the buyer, cost and risk being divided at ship's rail. The seller must clear the goods for export. Maritime transport only.

FOT - Free On Truck
FOR - Free On Rail

CFR - Cost and Freight (named destination port)
Seller must pay the costs and freight to bring the goods to the port of destination. However, risk is transferred to the buyer once the goods have crossed the ship's rail. Maritime transport only.

CIF - Cost, Insurance and Freight (named destination port)
Exactly the same as CFR except that the seller must in addition procure and pay for insurance for the buyer. Maritime transport only.

CPT - Carriage Paid To (named place of destination)
The general/containerized/multimodal equivalent of CFR. The seller pays for carriage to the named point of destination, but risk passes when the goods are handed over to the first carrier.

CIP - Carriage and Insurance Paid (To) (named place of destination)
The containerized transport/multimodal equivalent of CIF. Seller pays for carriage and insurance to the named destination point, but risk passes when the goods are handed over to the first carrier.

DAF - Delivered At Frontier (named place)
This term can be used when the goods are transported by rail and road. The seller pays for transportation to the named place of delivery at the frontier. The buyer arranges for customs clearance and pays for transportation from the frontier to his factory. The passing of risk occurs at the frontier.

DES - Delivered Ex Ship (named port)
Where goods are delivered ex ship, the passing of risk does not occur until the ship has arrived at the named port of destination and the goods made available for unloading to the buyer. The seller pays the same freight and insurance costs as he would under a CIF arrangement. Unlike CFR and CIF terms, the seller has agreed to bear not just cost, but also Risk and Title up to the arrival of the vessel at the named port. Costs for unloading the goods and any duties, taxes, etc… are for the Buyer. A commonly used term in shipping bulk commodities, such as coal, grain, dry chemicals - - - and where the seller either owns or has chartered, their own vessel.

DEQ - Delivered Ex Quay (named port)
This is similar to DES, but the passing of risk does not occur until the goods have been unloaded at the port of destination.

DDU - Delivered Duty Unpaid (named destination place)
This term means that the seller delivers the goods to the buyer to the named place of destination in the contract of sale. The goods are not cleared for import or unloaded from any form of transport at the place of destination. The buyer is responsible for the costs and risks for the unloading, duty and any subsequent delivery beyond the place of destination. However, if the buyer wishes the seller to bear cost and risks associated with the import clearance, duty, unloading and subsequent delivery beyond the place of destination, then this all needs to be explicitly agreed upon in the contract of sale.

DDP - Delivered Duty Paid (named destination place)
This term means that the seller pays for all transportation costs and bears all risk until the goods have been delivered and pays the duty. Also used interchangeably with the term "Free Domicile". The most comprehensive term for the buyer.
Use of Incoterms
Incoterms are not implied into contracts for the sale of goods.
If you desire to use Incoterms, you must specifically include them in your contract.
Further, your contract should expressly refer to the rules of interpretation as defined in the latest revision of Incoterms, for example, Incoterms 2000, and you should ensure the proper application of the terms by additional contract provisions.
Also, Incoterms are not "laws".
In case of a dispute, courts and arbitrators will look at:
1) the sales contract,
2) who has possession of the goods, and
3) what payment, if any, has been made.

Incoterms Do...
Incoterms 2000 may be included in a sales contract if the parties desire the following:

1. To complete a sale of goods.
2. To establish basic terms of transport and delivery in a short format.
3. To indicate each contracting party's costs, risks, and obligations with regard to delivery of the goods as follows:
- When is the delivery completed?
- How does a party ensure that the other party has met that standard of conduct?
- Which party must comply with requisite licenses and government-imposed formalities?
- What are the mode and terms of carriage?
- What are the delivery terms and what is required as proof of delivery?
- When is the risk of loss transferred from the seller to the buyer?
- How will transport costs be divided between the parties?
- What notices are the parties required to give to each other regarding the transport and transfer of the goods?

Incoterms Do Not...
Incoterms 2000 are not sufficient on their own to express the full intent of the parties.
They will not:

1. Apply to contracts for services.
2. Define contractual rights and obligations other than for delivery.
3. Specify details of the transfer, transport, and delivery of the goods.
4. Determine how title to the goods will be transferred.
5. Protect a party from his/her own risk of loss.
6. Cover the goods before or after delivery.
7. Define the remedies for breach of contract.

Tip:
Incoterms can be quite useful, but their use has limitations.
If you use them incorrectly, your contract may be ambiguous, if not impossible to perform.
It is therefore important to understand the scope and purpose of Incoterms-when and why you might use them-before you rely on them to define such important terms as mode of delivery, customs clearance, passage of title, and transfer of risk.

Mode of Transport
Not all Incoterms are appropriate for all modes of transport.
Some terms were designed with sea vessels in mind while others were designed to be applicable to all modes.

The following table sets out which terms are appropriate for each mode of transport.

Helpful Definitions
Pre-carriage - The initial transport of goods from the seller's premises to the main port of shipment. Usually by truck, rail or on inland waterways.
Main carriage - The primary transport of goods, generally for the longest part of the journey and generally from one country to another.
Usually by sea vessel or by airplane, but can be by truck or rail as well.
On-carriage - Transport from the port of arrival in the country of destination to the buyer's premises. Usually by truck, rail or on inland waterways.

Notes on Incoterms

1. Underlying Contract-Incoterms were designed to be used within the context of a written contract for the sale of goods.
Incoterms, therefore, refer to the contract of sale, rather than the contract of carriage of the goods.
Buyers and sellers should specify that their contract be governed by Incoterms 2000.

2. EXW and FCA-If you buy Ex Works or Free Carrier you will need to arrange for the contract of carriage.
Also, since the shipper will not receive a bill of lading, using a letter of credit requiring a bill of lading will not be possible.

3. EDI: Electronic Data Interchange-It is increasingly common for sellers to prepare and transmit documents electronically.
Incoterms provides for EDI so long as buyers and sellers agree on their use in the sales contract.

4. Insurable Interest-Note that in many cases either the buyer or the seller is not obligated to provide insurance.
In a number of cases neither party is obligated to provide insurance.
However, both the seller and buyer should be aware that they may have insurable interest in the goods and prudence dictates purchase of insurance coverage.

5. Customs of the Port or Trade-Incoterms are an attempt to standardize trade terms for all nations and all trades.
However, different ports and different trades have their own customs and practices.
It is best if specific customs and practices are specified in the sales contract.

6. Precise Point of Delivery-In some cases it may not be possible for the buyer to name the precise point of delivery at contract.
However, if the buyer does not do so in a timely manner, it may give the seller the option to make delivery within a range of places that is within the terms of the contract.
For example, the original terms of sale may state CFR Port of Rotterdam.
The Port of Rotterdam is huge and the buyer may find that a particular point within the port is best and should so state in the sales contract and in the trade term.
Also, since the buyer becomes liable for the goods once they arrive, he or she may be responsible for unloading, storage and other charges once the goods have been made available at the place named.

7. Export and Import Customs Clearance-It is usually desirable that export customs formalities be handled by the seller and import customs formalities be handled by the buyer.
However, some trade terms require that the buyer handle export formalities and others require that the seller handle import formalities.
In each case the buyer and seller will have to assume risk from export and import restrictions and prohibitions.
In some cases foreign exporters may not be able to obtain import licenses in the country of import.
This should be researched before accepting final terms.

8. Added Wording-It is possible, and in many cases desirable, that the seller and buyer agree to additional wording to an Incoterm.
For example, if the seller agrees to DDP terms, agreeing to pay for customs formalities and import duties, but not for VAT (Value Added Taxes) the term "DDP VAT Unpaid" may be used.

9. Packing-It is the responsibility of the seller to provide packaging unless the goods shipped are customarily shipped in bulk (usually commodities such as oil or grain).
In most situations it is best if the buyer and seller agree in the sales contract on the type and extent of packing required.
However, it may not be possible to know beforehand the type or duration of transport.
As a result, it is the responsibility of the seller to provide for safe and appropriate packaging, but only to the extent that the buyer has made the circumstances of the transport known to the seller beforehand.
If the seller is responsible for packing goods in an ocean or air freight container it is also his responsibility to pack the container properly to withstand shipment.

10. Inspection-These are several issues related to inspections:
a) the seller is responsible for costs of inspection to make certain the quantity and quality of the shipment is in conformity with the sales contract,
b) pre-shipment inspections as required by the export authority are the responsibility of the party responsible for export formalities,
c) import inspections as required by the import authority are the responsibility of the party responsible for import formalities, and
d) third-party inspections for independent verification of quality and quantity (if required) are generally the responsibility of the buyer.
The buyer may require such an inspection and inspection document as a condition of payment.

11. Passing of Risks and Costs-The general rule is that risks and costs pass from the seller to the buyer once the buyer has delivered the goods to the point and place named in the trade term.